sailboat rigging inspection

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• ← Safety & Prevention

Inspecting Your Boat's Mast and Rigging

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Keep your sailboat in top shape with this useful advice on inspecting your boat's mast and rigging.

Surveying Your Rig

What to look for and why.

Whenever a mast tumbles overboard, the two seemingly obvious offenders are the mast itself — the aluminum extrusion — and the wire stays and shrouds that support the mast. In practice however, these are rarely the culprits. The offenders, in most cases, are the tangs, turnbuckles, and chainplates and the smaller, but no less significant, screws, bolts, terminal fittings, clevis and cotter pins that hold everything together. These can be inspected in a couple hours or less. All you need for an inspection is a magnifying lens, a mirror, some toilet paper, your fingernails, a boatswain's chair, and a pair of reasonably good eyes.

Download the Rigging Checklist in PDF format.

Whenever you inspect a fitting, look for obvious problems like rust and distortion and use the magnifying glass to find smaller cracks. Rust, especially rust that you can feel, and even slight distortions or cracks should be considered serious, and the component replaced. Use your fingernails to feel for cracks and check the thinnest part of the fittings extra carefully, as this is where failure is most likely to occur. If a fitting has been painted (a bad idea), strip off the paint.

Chainplates

Turnbuckles and chainplates must be angled so that loads are in a direct line with stays and shrouds. Toggles, which act like universal joints to allow movement in all directions, should be used with turnbuckles but they cannot be relied on to compensate for a misaligned chainplate. A chainplate that is not aligned has a tendency to work until it eventually breaks. Besides eyeballing the shroud/chainplate alignment, misalignment is sometimes indicated by damage to the surrounding gelcoat.

Chainplates can corrode and fail either above, within, or below the deck. Corrosion at the chainplate above may have been only detected by removing the toggles to inspect around the eye.

The chainplate above failed within the deck, where salt water had leaked down and initiated crevice corrosion where hidden from view.

If chainplates are bolted to a bulkhead, as is often the case, inspect the bulkhead for signs of weakness — discoloration, delamination, and rot. Chainplates are highly stressed, and will work and cause leaks where they come through the deck. Water can then enter the bulkhead and eventually cause it to rot. Probably the best, although maybe not the prettiest, place to secure a chainplate is to the outside of the hull. Chainplates that are only bolted to flanges under the deck, and are not secured to a structural member down below, are the least desirable installation.

Turnbuckles

Open turnbuckles are easier to inspect and don't retain moisture, which encourages corrosion. Closed turnbuckles retain moisture in the barrel and have of a tendency to freeze up, but they also are better at retaining lubricant.

Fatigue and crevice corrosion broke this pair of threaded terminal fittings along the crevice between the lock nut and the turnbuckle body, illustrating why disassembly of the turnbuckle is necessary to inspect hidden trouble spots most likely to fail.

Turnbuckles should be wiped clean and lubricated at least once a year; more often if they are open or are adjusted frequently.

Teflon is better for lubricating turnbuckles than oil or grease because it doesn't hold grit that abrades the threads. Oil or grease, however, are certainly better than nothing.

Most turnbuckles are tightened by turning the shank or barrel clockwise. Incidentally, you should never stress your rig by over-tightening the turnbuckles. If the turnbuckle squeaks stop tightening — this is a sign of over-tightening and poor lubrication.

If you boat has open turnbuckles, be sure to leave at least 3/4" of thread visible in the barrel and replace the old cotter pins. A cotter pin should be large enough to fit snugly into the hole and long enough to be bent half way back around. Rigging tape should then be wrapped around the pin to protect your sails, fingers, toes, etc.

Many closed turnbuckles can't be cottered and rely instead on locknuts. Experts warn that over-tightening the locknuts places too much stress on the threads.

Terminal Fittings

Most sailboats rely on swage fittings at the terminals, but these fittings are not necessarily the most reliable, especially in warmer climates where they have a history of failure. Swage fittings are made by compressing a tube onto the wire under great pressure, a process that must be done exactly right to assure a strong bond. If the swage has to be pressed several times (a bad practice) before the wire is secure, there is an increased chance that the swage has been weakened and could crack.

There are other types of terminal fittings, such as Noresman and Sta-Lok, which are more expensive and less common than swage fittings but are highly touted by many sailors for their durability. Norseman and Sta-Lok fittings can be installed or repaired by the boat owner — an obvious advantage, especially for making emergency repairs on long cruises.

Cracked swage fittings are not only the most common kind of rigging failure, but also the most visible. This one should have been noticed and replaced long ago.

Careful inspection of all terminal fittings is a must. Cracks are usually microscopic when they begin, so use your magnifying glass. Also, you can sometimes feel a crack with a fingernail that cannot be seen.

Cleaning the fitting with metal polish helps brighten the fitting to make inspection easier and using one of the three-part spray products on the market also helps you see cracks. The latter are highly touted by their manufacturers but they are not infallible. The first part cleans the fitting; the second part is a dye that penetrates the crack; and the third part is a developer. The dye, incidentally, can stain gelcoat, so be careful.

Terminal fittings, especially swage fittings at the deck, are prone to rust where the wire enters the swage. Rust indicates a serious problem and the swage and possibly the wire should be replaced. Some skippers like to use gel or wax to prevent water from entering the swage. While this may be effective for a while, it probably won't keep water out for long and could very well trap water inside, encouraging corrosion.

The Mast and Boom:

Welds and rivets.

Aluminum welds on the mast and boom should be inspected, especially where there may be a lot of stress. Look at the ends of the welds first, as aluminum welds fail from the ends of the weld inward. Welds that are not done correctly have sharp edges and crevices which encourage corrosion. Any welds that are cracked or badly rusted should be rewelded immediately.

Rivets should be examined, and any that are loose or missing should be drilled out and replaced with the next-larger size. Also, if one or two rivets holding a cleat or gooseneck are loose, it is a good idea to replace all of the rivets with the next-larger size, not just the ones that are missing.

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when stainless steel or bronze fittings — cleats, tangs, winches — are installed metal-to-metal on an aluminum mast.

Every few years, mast fittings should be rebedded with zinc chromate paste, polysulfide, teflon, nylon, or tufnol (plastic) to protect the mast from galvanic corrosion. Silicone does a good job of protecting the mast, but the fittings may be difficult to get off later. And in a pinch, Rolf Bjelke aboard the steel ketch Northern Light in the Antarctic, used a plastic coffee can lid to bed a halyard winch.

If a mast is painted, look for bubbles near fittings, which indicate corrosion. On an unpainted mast, look for white powder and pockmarks around fittings. Some powder, which is oxidized aluminum, is normal on an aluminum mast and is usually not significant. But heavy concentrations of powder, bubbles and/or pockmarks, especially deep pockmarks, indicates a serious problem that threatens the integrity of the rig. Contact a rigger or surveyor if you suspect a problem.

Whether it is stepped on deck or on the keel, the base of a mast — a maststep — should be the same material as the mast. Because water that is outside the boat usually finds its way into the bilge, a mast that is stepped on the keel is especially prone to corrosion when the boat is used in saltwater. A rigger in Maryland likes to tell the story about an owner who complained that the stays and shrouds that couldn't be tightened. He thought they had stretched. It turns out that the maststep had corroded so badly that the mast was "sinking" into the bilge.

A mast that is stepped on deck can cause problems if the load isn't supported properly down below. This is sometimes a design problem, but most often it is because a bulkhead or support stanchion has failed — shifted, rotted, delaminated, etc. Look down below for indications of movement, including jammed doors, broken bonds, and splitting wood. A sagging cabin top is a strong indication that adequate support isn't being provided.

Besides corrosion, maststeps can be damaged when the mast is cocked to one side and the heavy compression load is not evenly distributed. Indications of uneven compression load include cracking and/or crushing of the mast's base. The problem can be avoided by keeping your rig tuned — adjusting the stays and shrouds to make the mast straight. If the base of the mast has already been damaged, don't despair, it can either be cut down slightly and restepped or, if the problem is more serious, the damaged portion can be cut down and an extrusion added. Either way, the boat should not be sailed until a rigger is contacted and the problem has been corrected.

Wood masts have a lot of eye appeal but require more upkeep than aluminum masts. Wood masts are usually made of spruce, a material that is light and flexible, but prone to rot.

Rot is easier to detect when a mast is varnished. Painted masts hide rot, but only for awhile. Any areas that are badly discolored on a varnished mast, or won't hold paint on a painted mast, are suspect and should be sounded with a hammer for indications of soft wood. Rot is most likely to appear around fittings, the masthead, mastboot, spreaders, and especially at the maststep. These areas should be inspected twice a season and treated or caulked as necessary. Weep holes, used to drain water at the base of a box mast, can become plugged with debris, leaving water to fester inside the mast. Weep holes should be checked periodically with a coat hanger to prevent blockage.

Inspecting Aloft

Most people have a natural aversion to hanging from a rope at the top of a swaying mast. If possible, inspect your mast while it is unstepped. If you do go aloft, make sure there are experienced hands below to hoist you up. A snap shackle, if one is used on the halyard, can be made safer by taping the lanyard to prevent its accidentally opening. Also, if the boat is in the water, you'll want to moor it where it won't get tossed around by a passing boat wake.

Stress cracks often form at bends of fittings, such as the under side of upper T-ball terminals.

Zero in with a magnifying glass to detect cracks and discoloration before they fail.

Take tools: screwdrivers, pliers, a small hammer, lubricant, the mirror, extra cotter pins, and rigging tape. Put them all in a tool pouch or boatswain's chair with tool pockets and Velcro flaps. Whenever possible, use lanyards on the tools. The only thing worse than making the crew haul you up and down the mast getting tools you forgot is to drop a tool on someone's head. (You can also help the grinder's morale by using your feet and hands to help hoist yourself up.)

First stop is the spreaders. (While you're working, have the tailer cleat-off the halyard.) Make sure the ends of the spreaders bisect the shrouds at equal angles and are secured properly to prevent slipping. Skewed spreaders have been responsible for many dismastings. Tape or spreader boots, used on the spreader ends to prevent damage to the sails, should be removed temporarily so that the spreader ends can be inspected and the connection tightened as necessary.

Some skippers paint the top of the spreaders, even aluminum spreaders, to reduce damage from sunlight. This is a necessity with wooden spreaders, unless you go aloft every month and add a coat of varnish. Remember, you can't see the tops of the spreaders from down below.

Like their counterparts the chainplates, fork tangs, used to secure the shrouds to the mast, should be angled so that loads are in a direct line with stays and shrouds. Cotter pins should be taped so that they don't shred flailing sails or snag a halyard. Shrouds that use "T" terminals should be examined for stress cracks where the bend occurs and for elongation of the slot. Either problem indicates the shroud or fitting should be replaced.

The last stop, before you begin your descent, is the masthead. If you are even slightly acrophobic, the masthead can be a very scary place. Avoid looking down.

The mirror (remember the mirror?) is especially useful for inspecting fittings at the masthead that would otherwise be inaccessible. Look at the halyard fittings, especially the sheaves, which wear over time and can be crushed or split by the strain of the genoa. Even if it's healthy, a squirt of two of lubricant can help whenever the sail is raised. Wind indicators and radio antennas should also be checked for loose mounts and connections.

On the way down check the rivets and/or screws used to secure the mast track. Replace any that are missing or suspect. While you're at it, you may as well lubricate the track (use teflon) to make raising and lowering the sail less of a chore.

Standing Rigging: Stays and Shrouds

Stays and shrouds should have some "give", but not too much, when pressure is exerted with the palm of your hand. A stay that is too tight feels rigid. A stay that is too loose feels limp. Make sure any necessary adjustments are done evenly so the mast doesn't get cocked to one side. And adjustable (mechanical or hydraulic) backstays should be slackened when not in use. Remember, turnbuckles should have sufficient thread inside the barrel — at least 3/4" — and cotter pins to prevent their coming loose. (Be sure and wrap fresh tape around the cotter pins when you're done.)

This is what 1x19 wire looks like at the upper headstay terminal fitting after it has been twisted back and forth a few times from "halyard wrap". Even slight damage from minor episodes warrants replacing the wire.

Wire should be inspected for broken strands or "fishhooks" by wrapping some toilet paper around the wire and running it up and down. If the paper shreds, the wire is nearing the end of its useful life and should be replaced. Check the wire where it enters the swage fittings for rust, which also indicates weakened wires that should be replaced.

Replace Your Standings Rigging: $$$?

Lets play "what if". What if a small voice inside you says your rig is living on borrowed time: you've found rust, cracks, failed welds, and fishhooks?

As a general cost guideline, replacing the standing rigging on a typical 30 footer with 1/4" wire rigging will cost about $1,200. That price includes turnbuckles but not unstepping the mast. The cost of replacing the standing rigging on a 40-foot cruising boat with 3/8" wire could be almost twice as much. Incidentally, it pays to get estimates, as prices can very significantly. Our estimates to replace the standing rigging on a 30-foot boat, for example, were as high as $2,800.

Professional Inspections

If you're not confident in your ability to inspect your boat's rig, you can hire a professional — a rigger or surveyor — to do it for you. Riggers specialize in rigging, which is an advantage, but they could be biased since they also sell rigging. An inspection, including going aloft, should be under $100 for a 30' boat.

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How To Inspect Sailboat Rigging? (The Ultimate Guide)

Maintaining your sailboat rigging is essential to ensure a safe and enjoyable time on the water.

But what does it take to properly inspect sailboat rigging? The Ultimate Guide to Inspecting Sailboat Rigging is here to help! In this guide, you will learn why its important to inspect sailboat rigging, what materials you need, and the step by step process to ensure your rigging is secure and in tip top shape.

In addition, well provide some helpful tips to make sure youre doing inspections properly.

So, if youre ready to learn how to inspect your sailboat rigging, lets dive in!

Table of Contents

Short Answer

Inspecting sailboat rigging should begin by visually inspecting each part of the rigging for signs of wear and damage, such as frayed lines or rust on the metal components.

Additionally, run your hands along the lines and feel for any irregularities.

It’s also important to inspect the fittings and terminals for signs of corrosion or wear.

Finally, check the tension of the rigging to ensure it is properly tightened and not too loose.

Why Inspect Sailboat Rigging?

Inspecting sailboat rigging is an essential part of keeping your boat in working order.

Sailboat rigging is the primary component that keeps the boat in working condition and ensures it can be used safely and efficiently.

Regular inspection of the rigging is the best way to ensure that your boat is in top condition and ready for use.

Inspecting sailboat rigging can help identify any potential problems before they become serious issues.

This is especially important if you use your boat on a regular basis, as any small problems can quickly become larger ones if not addressed quickly.

By inspecting the rigging, you can make sure that the boat is in good condition and that all components are in working order.

Inspecting sailboat rigging can also help you identify any signs of wear and tear or corrosion.

This is important as these types of problems can cause the rigging to become weak or break, leading to unsafe conditions.

Regular inspection of the rigging can help you identify any potential issues and ensure that the rigging is in top condition.

Finally, inspecting sailboat rigging is important to make sure that all components are properly tensioned.

This is especially important if you plan to sail in strong winds, as the tension of the rigging can make the difference between a safe and successful voyage and a dangerous one.

Taking the time to inspect the rigging and make sure all the fittings are secure and the tension is set correctly can help to ensure that your boat is safe to use in all conditions.

Materials Needed

Inspecting sailboat rigging requires certain materials and tools that need to be gathered before the inspection process begins.

These materials and tools can include a variety of items, depending on the boat and what kind of rigging needs to be inspected.

Some of the most essential items needed for inspecting sailboat rigging include a flashlight, a set of binoculars, a pair of pliers, and a screwdriver.

Depending on the size and type of boat, other items may be needed such as a wrench, an Allen key, and even a drill.

Additionally, it is also important to have a soft cloth and a metal brush on hand for cleaning off any dirt, rust, or other debris.

Having all of these items gathered before starting the inspection process will ensure that the entire process runs smoothly and that nothing is missed.

Inspecting sailboat rigging is an important part of routine maintenance for any sailor.

To properly inspect sailboat rigging, the first step is to check all the fittings and make sure they are secure.

This is important as it ensures the safety and reliability of the boat and its rigging.

When checking the fittings, it is important to look for any signs of corrosion, rust, or other damage.

Additionally, pay attention to the tension of the lines and make sure they are not too tight or too loose.

Loose rigging can lead to problems in the future, while overly tight lines can damage the rigging and cause it to break or stretch.

Finally, inspect the turnbuckles and cleats for signs of wear or corrosion.

It is important to check these components as they are essential for the proper functioning of the rigging.

The second step in inspecting sailboat rigging is to check the tension and inspect the wire for any cracks or other damage.

This step is critical for ensuring the safety of the boat and its crew.

To check the tension, start by examining the wire to ensure that it is free from any kinks or knots.

If there are any, make sure to straighten them out.

Next, examine the wire for any signs of wear or corrosion.

If any are found, the wire should be replaced as soon as possible.

Finally, use a tension gauge to check the tension of the wire.

The gauge should read between 10-20 percent of the breaking strength of the wire.

If the wire is too loose or too tight, it should be adjusted accordingly.

The third step in inspecting sailboat rigging is to inspect the turnbuckles and cleats.

Turnbuckles are metal fittings that are used to adjust the tension of the rigging.

It is important to ensure that the turnbuckles are in good working order and that all the parts are tight.

Check for any corrosion or damage to the turnbuckles, as this could indicate a failure point.

If there is any damage, it should be replaced.

Cleats are metal fittings that are used to secure the rigging.

Inspect the cleats for any signs of wear or corrosion.

It is also important to make sure that the cleats are properly secured and tight.

This will help ensure that the rigging is secure and will not come loose.

Finally, inspect the rigging for any other signs of wear or damage.

Check for frayed lines, broken strands or any other signs of wear.

If any of these issues are present, the rigging should be replaced.

This is an important step to ensure that the rigging is in good working order and is safe to use.

By taking the time to properly inspect the sailboat rigging, you can ensure that your boat is in good working order and is ready for use.

This is an important step in maintaining the sailboat and ensuring that it is safe to use.

Inspecting sailboat rigging is a crucial part of keeping your vessel safe and in good working order, and step four of the process is to inspect the turnbuckles and cleats for signs of wear or corrosion.

Turnbuckles are vital pieces of hardware that help secure the rigging to the boat and keep it in place.

It is important to inspect the turnbuckles for any signs of wear or corrosion, as this can cause the rigging to come loose or even break.

The cleats should also be checked to make sure they are properly secured and not worn.

If any of the turnbuckles or cleats appear to be worn or corroded, they should be replaced to ensure the safety of the rigging.

Additionally, if the cleats are not securely fastened, they should be tightened to prevent them from coming loose or breaking.

Additional Tips for Inspecting Sailboat Rigging

In addition to the basics outlined above, there are a few other tips and tricks for inspecting sailboat rigging that can help keep your boat running smoothly.

First, be sure to use a soft cloth to wipe down the rigging and fittings, as some dirt and grime can interfere with the boats performance.

Additionally, its important to inspect all the nuts, bolts, and screws to make sure they are secure and not corroded.

It may also be a good idea to lubricate any moving parts or fittings, such as the turnbuckles or cleats, to ensure smooth operation.

Additionally, its important to inspect the mast, boom, and spreaders for any signs of wear or damage.

If any of these components are damaged, they should be replaced as soon as possible to prevent further damage.

Lastly, when inspecting sailboat rigging, be sure to check the tension of all the lines.

The tension should be just right not too loose, and not too tight.

Too much tension can damage the rigging, while too little can make the boat more difficult to sail.

If the tension is off, you can adjust it using the turnbuckles and other fittings.

Inspecting sailboat rigging is an important part of routine maintenance.

Taking the time to complete these steps will ensure that your boat is in good condition and ready for use.

By following these additional tips, you can help keep your boat running smoothly and safely.

Final Thoughts

Inspecting sailboat rigging is an important part of routine maintenance and safety for any sailor.

By taking the time to correctly inspect your sailboat rigging, you can be sure that your boat is in good condition and ready for use.

With this guide, you now have the tools and knowledge to properly inspect your sailboat rigging and keep your boat in top shape.

So, what are you waiting for? Get out there and inspect your sailboat rigging today!

James Frami

At the age of 15, he and four other friends from his neighborhood constructed their first boat. He has been sailing for almost 30 years and has a wealth of knowledge that he wants to share with others.

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Standing Rigging Inspection

• By Ralph Naranjo
• Updated: April 11, 2019

It’s easy to assume that a sailboat’s rig will perpetually point skyward. It has a lot to do with advances in engineering, material science and design priorities adopted by today’s boatbuilders. But with this uptick in reliability comes the downside of complacency. Time, metal fatigue and corrosion are co-conspirators, and they’re why every skipper needs to know where they sail on the rigging-failure timeline.

Most riggers generalize that the lifespan of a sailboat’s standing rigging is about a decade. This doesn’t mean that in the 11th season the mast is destined to go over the side. But it does mean that the trouble-free decade is astern and the likelihood of problems are on the rise. In terms of miles at sea, rigging lifespan is often defined as one circumnavigation’s worth of torment. But there’s much more to understand about standing rigging and when it’s time for replacement.

Whether your boat is gently rolling in a quiet mooring field or bashing to windward in a gale, cycle loading wears away on the components. Yes, the higher strain cycles take a greater toll, but all of the on-off energy transfers add up. There’s also a chemical war ­being waged between dissimilar metal alloys. It’s no ­surprise that rigging hardware on freshwater-sailed boats holds up better than aboard their saltwater sisterships. As time goes by, the structural safety factor built into a rig’s design starts to erode. At some point, the designer’s safety factor heads toward the negative part of the curve – a result of too many days at sea, an excess of spar-bashing tacks and jibes, and too much salt-laden spray. Fortunately, careful rig inspection and timely hardware ­replacement can help defeat the inevitable.

Sailboat rigs are perpetually in a compression/tension tug of war. On one side is the righting moment of the vessel, a force created by the buoyancy induced by hull shape and the location of the vessel’s center of gravity. At the other end of this tussle is the heeling moment, a force created by wind pressure on the sail plan.

The rig and rigging of most monohull sailboats are designed to handle a wind-­induced, 90-degree knockdown. The load this ­imposes on the windward side’s ­rigging, spreaders, fittings and ­chainplates can be computer ­modeled. Engineers use this data to help select hardware according to the specific loads each piece must handle. The rig designer determines the max loads each piece of standing rigging is to carry, and adds a specific safety factor to the equation. If, for example, an upper shroud will be tensioned to 5,000 pounds during a knockdown, a 2-to-1 ­safety factor would result in wire with a 10,000-pound breaking strength. A greater safety factor would usually extend the lifespan of the wire, but it also adds undesirable weight aloft and additional expense to the bottom line. Doing so might make sense for a crew sailing the Roaring Forties, but it’s counterproductive for coastal cruisers planning a voyage to the Bahamas.

The Rig Inspection

In recent decades, winter storage and year-round, in-water berthing have lessened the opportunity for a full mast and rigging inspection. Add to this complications like a headstay hidden inside a roller-furling foil, and one can see why too many years go by between a thorough rig inspection. Ideally, this will happen with the spar unstepped in the boatyard on sawhorses. It’s true that, if the standing rigging has been designed with a higher safety factor, the boat has not been vigorously sailed, and home port is in the middle of a large freshwater lake, the aging process elongates and the rigging is likely to outlast an oceangoing production boat. That said, the more complex the rig and older the vessel, the more scrutiny is necessary.

With the rig removed, I begin in the boat looking over the mast step and determining how all the compression loads have been handled. In cases in which the mast step is in or just forward of the keel sump, it’s important to note how the compression load is spread transversely and longitudinally. Look for signs of crushed or cracked grids, floor frames or other support structure. Closely inspect the mast step. It should be free of corrosion and provide a means to pin the mast heel in place once the spar is stepped. Deck-stepped masts deserve the same detective work. With these rigs, the compression loads are usually shared between a compression post or bulkhead and the deck or coach roof itself. There are considerable side loads generated during beats to windward. Look for signs of fiberglass crazing or microcracking, or a change in the contour around the step. Deck-stepped masts are fine, as long as they do not overly flex and distort the structure that supports them.

The chainplates anchor the standing rigging and represent the other end of a load-bearing couplet. As with the mast step, the big concern is whether the structure remains intact or the tension has caused the laminate, wood bulkhead or metal webbing to deform. No matter how good the standing rigging happens to be, a chainplate or mast-step failure usually leads to a dismasting and major ­vessel damage.

Next comes a close look at the spar itself. I prefer a ­bottom-up approach, ­starting at the base, or the heel of the mast, and working toward the masthead. During the design and engineering of a mast and rigging, many spar builders use finite element ­analysis to model the loads that ­migrate through a rig. A ­computer graphic reveals a range of ­colors overlaid on the spar ­section, with red or magenta ­indicating where high-stress areas are located. These energy focal points are found at spreader roots, rigging ­attachment points, the mast-heel fitting, and other areas where tension, compression and bending ­moments stress the spar. These are the spots where potential problems lurk and indicators include stress cracks, surface deformation, pitting and corrosion. If you notice this type of deterioration, it’s time to have an ­experienced rigger or marine surveyor take a closer look.

A Look Aloft

Of course, not everybody pulls their rig on a regular ­basis and has the opportunity to ­inspect the mast when nestled on stands. But there’s plenty you can observe when ­sailing. During a race to Bermuda with the late Rod Stephens, the brother of Olin and one of the driving forces of Sparkman & Stephens, I learned why a cruiser at sea should do a ­daily “rigging walk around.” Rod’s morning rig check involved a slow amble forward on the windward deck ­glancing up and down to make sure ­toggles, clevis pins, and ­other bits and pieces were all in place, and none of the running ­rigging had been led incorrectly in the dark. Returning aft on the leeward side, he looked over the gooseneck fitting and glanced aloft at the spreaders, noting mast bend and the fall off to leeward that the spar had to endure.

Back in the cockpit, Rod would focus a pair of 7×50 binoculars on the masthead and work his way down to the lower spreader tips, looking for telltale signs of trouble. This is a good way for cruisers to make sure that the halyard lead to the headstay furler’s top ­swivel remains fairly led. If there’s a wrap or two around the foil, roller furling becomes difficult and foil damage will soon follow. Rod always insisted that this magnification-­aided checkup was not a substitute for going aloft in a bosun’s chair. The latter should be done prior to heading offshore or embarking on a lengthy coastal cruise. Going aloft in a ­seaway, to cope with a problem that should have been sorted out prior to departure, raises the risk factor and complicates a repair. But at times it must be done. Keep in mind that the further aloft you go, the more violent the effect of the vessel’s pitch and roll. Make sure your mast-working equipment kit includes a harness tether that holds you to the spar, as well as safe hoisting tackle.

It’s important to ­identify what riggers call “critical ­components.” In this case, it’s the rigging hardware and wire, rod or rope that plays an essential role in keeping the rig in place. Rig loss can be ­attributed to something as simple as a missing cotter pin or loose Nylock nut holding a tension rod to a ­chainplate. Critical rigging components include a ring pin ­keeping a headstay turnbuckle in place. If it gets snagged and pulled out by a genoa sheet, the ­domino effect can lead to a ­dismasting. On the ­other hand, if the same thing ­happens to the clevis pin on the rear lower shroud or an ­intermediate shroud, the rig is likely to ­remain standing. Double checking critical rigging, like the headstay, upper shrouds and backstay, is a top priority.

Many old-school ­cruisers favored a cutter rig for more than headsail versatility. They knew that with an inner forestay and a running backstay set, they had hedged their bet if it came to the loss of a headstay or backstay. It ­also lessened mast pumping and its metal fatigue implications. During long distance ­passagemaking, tacks and jibes ­become less frequent and complaints about runners and a forestay disappear.

Contemporary cruisers have a new ally in high modulus (HMPE) line, not only as an optimum choice for running rigging, but also as a stand-in when and if a wire-rigging problem arises. The norm aboard most race boats, it has the crew attaching unused headsail and spinnaker halyards to a fitting or mini-rail just ahead of the mast. But aboard a cruising boat that’s headed offshore, it makes sense to keep a HMPE spinnaker/drifter halyard tacked forward, attached to a well-­secured, anchor-roller strut or a mini bowsprit. This adds a backup safety margin, just in case the headstay gives way. The same halyard can also be moved to an amidships rail to help keep the mast up, if a spreader fails or there’s the loss of a shroud. In fact, high modulus line is a strong, lightweight standing-­rigging ­alternative that’s proven its validity aboard multihulls and many high-performance monohulls. Chafe can be an issue, so those who settle on ­fiber rigging need to make sure their sheet and guys are fair led when going through a sail change, ­especially at night.

Keeping the rig where it ­belongs requires regular ­inspections and maintenance, and the recognition that, like ­anchor chain, one weak link can spell disaster.

Technical expert Ralph Naranjo is a veteran circumnavigator and ocean racer, and the author of the T he Art of Seamanship .

DIY Spar Inspection Checklist

Every few years, the rig should come out and a detailed inspection ensue. One of the reasons for such scrutiny is the chain-linklike behavior of standing rigging.

• Check mast for corrosion especially at heel, gooseneck, spreader tips and wherever stainless steel contacts aluminum.
• Inspect rigging hardware and note corrosion, pitting and elongation of clevis pin holes.
• Check swage fittings, clean with plastic scrub pad, and use magnifying glass to search for swage barrel cracks, pitting and wire cracks.
• If mechanical compression terminals have been used, look for signs of wire slippage or cracks in wire strands and terminal barrel.
• Rub down all 1×19 wire rigging with a nylon stocking that will snag on any cracks in wire strands.
• Check all clevis pins for wear and make sure that toggles connecting to stainless-steel chainplates have stainless-steel clevis pins, not bronze or chrome-plated pins.
• Wire brush away corrosion on alloy spars and inspect for cracks (if corrosion is minor, acid etch, epoxy prime and paint).
• Closely inspect top and bottom headstay fittings and roller furling system; service furler as per manufacture’s recommendations; and consider disassembly and replacing the headstay if over 10 years old.
• Those with an in-mast furling system should follow manufacturer’s recommendation for maintenance and lubrication/replacement of bearings.
• Visually inspect and heck mast electrical wiring for continuity; improve chafe protection.
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Sailboat Rig Inspection Tips

Some rigging woes are the result of our own good intentions..

Wandering among the boats stored for winter on Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, many with their masts removed and in storage, I’m reminded of how easy it is to overlook the warning signs of an impending rig failure. I figured that now, when some of us have our masts within reach from ground-level, would be a good time to share again this report on inspecting your mast, rigging, chainplates, and turnbuckles. It’s as pertinent today as it was then, back in the black-and-white, courier-font days.

How frequently do you bother removing spreader boots and taping to check the condition of the spreaders and rigging? No matter how well the spreader ends are protected, and whether you use ready-made vinyl spreader boots or conventional rigging tape, water will get through to the fittings inside. On a boat used in saltwater, the corrosive nature can cause rapid disintegration of aluminum fittings (nevermind the fact that the spreaders might be 25 feet or more off the water). The thorough taping job you did on the spreader ends may actually accelerate the problem by holding in water.

The problem can be just as bad on a boat with wooden spreaders. Wooden spreaders are usually spruce, a wood with very low resistance to rot. Water trapped by spreader boots, or taping at the inboard ends of the spreaders at the mast fittings, can rot a spruce spreader in a single season. Keeping wood spreaders varnished can help, but it is no guarantee of protection. Wooden spreaders are almost always fitted with metal ends, both at the mast and at the spreaders outboard end. If these fittings were not thoroughly bedded with compound when the spreader was assembled, all the varnish in the world won’t keep water out of the joint between the spreader and the metal end fitting.

And water sitting in this joint will eventually cause the spreader to rot. If the boat is decommissioned some time during the year, thats the time to make a careful inspection of the rig and rigging. Every component must be gone over thoroughly.

First, check the mast tube for problems. Do the masthead sheaves turn freely? Are the edges of the sheaves worn, so that a halyard might jump the sheave and wedge itself between the sheave and its box? Is the mast dimpled, or bent? Worn sheaves should be replaced.

Stainless-steel wire tends to chew aluminum sheaves over time, particularly those used for spinnaker halyards. Sheaves that show only slight wear or burrs should be dressed smooth with a file. There should be no sideways play in halyard sheaves. Space between the sheave and the sheave box can be eliminated with micarta shims, which will also help prevent the sheaves from seizing. Seized shims can usually be freed with liberal applications of a solvent and heat applied with a propane torch. Finding a replacement sheave for an older boat like John Foster’s Nonsuch 22 can open up a can of worms.

Physical damage to the mast tube in the form of dimpling, wrinkling, or bending requires professional analysis by a sparmaker. This type of damage rarely happens when the mast is in the boat. It is more likely to result from a shipping accident, or from stepping or unstepping the mast. A mast can become permanently bent through improper blocking during storage, however. Look for grooves in the mast extrusion where internal halyards exit the mast. Check the mast heel for corrosion. Corrosion at the heel of the mast is probably the most common problem with keel-stepped aluminum spars. The cure is to keep the area of the mast step in the bilge bone dry, and provide drain holes in the mast heel and mast step.

Deck-stepped spars are not immune to heel corrosion, and also require drain holes in both the heel and the step. Examine all mast fittings, winches, and cleats for signs of corrosion between the fitting and the mast. Unless the fittings are bedded, there’s a good chance of serious pitting here. The first clue is likely to be a powdery white deposit around the edge of the fitting. All fittings on the mast should be bedded in an elastometric marine sealant that will galvanically isolate the hardware, as well as protect damaged finish. (Riggers preferences for this job range from 3Ms 101 polysulfide to 3M UV4000 or Sikaflex 291-the latter two have the advantage of faster curing. See our article on marine sealants for more on this topic.) Other options include using either zinc chromate paste or plastic shims-neither of which have adhesive properties but do isolate the dissimilar metals. Check all the rigging tangs on the mast. Look particularly for elongated clevis pinholes or cracks radiating from clevis pin holes or points of attachment to the mast tube.

Any damage to tangs is unacceptable. Elongation or cracking means the metal of the tang is too thin for the load, or there is simply not enough metal between the clevis hole and the edges or end of the fitting. Brownish discoloration on tangs should be polished out using a stainless steel cleaner or buffing pad to make examination easier. Don’t use sandpaper or a harsh abrasive. You may destroy the surface polish of the stainless steel, which is its major source of discoloration protection. Badly discolored wire or fittings should probably be discarded. Any wire having a sharp kink in it should be replaced. Any swage fitting that is cracked should be replaced, although the lack of cracking is not necessarily an indication of health.

Stress corrosion cracking can be a serious problem with stainless steels on boats kept in salt water and warm climates. The greatest danger from stress corrosion is that a stressed fitting usually appears to be in perfect condition prior to failure. Many mysterious rigging failures are no doubt due to this little known and often misunderstood problem. There is evidence, however, that keeping rigging clean and polished with a product containing lanolin or silicone can decrease the possibility of a failure due to stress corrosion cracking.

Carefully examine each strand of rigging wire, including terminals, toggles, turnbuckles, clevis and cotter pins. Every season, a very expensive rig goes by the boards because a bolt is temporarily inserted in place of a missing clevis pin.

Any swage fittings having a banana shank, a curved shank that results from passing the fitting through the swaging machine without using the proper guide, should be replaced. Likewise, retire any cracked or bent turnbuckles or toggles. Seized turnbuckles should be freed using a penetrating oil such as WD-40, and heat from a propane torch. Brute force is almost guaranteed to ruin turnbuckles with screws under 3/8-inch.

Remove the tape and examine inboard and outboard ends of spreaders. Check leading and trailing edges of spreaders carefully, particularly if the spreaders are airfoil-shaped, welded aluminum sections. Wire halyards can wear through them very quickly.

Halyards should be carefully examined. Wire halyards, in particular, should be checked for meathooks. Running the halyard through your palm is an accurate, but sometimes painful way to detect meathooks. A better way to find burrs and broken strands is to rub over the shrouds and halyards with a piece of cheese cloth or an old nylon stocking. This method, however, is not a substitute for a careful visual examination.

The most likely places for meat hooks to develop are wherever the halyard changes direction over a sheave. As a rule, any halyard with more than one broken strand per 10 feet of length should be replaced. A halyard with a broken strand where the halyard wraps around a thimble should be shortened or replaced.

Check wire-to-rope splices for fraying. If the splice spends much of its life wrapped around a winch drum, the part of the wire inside the cover of the rope can chafe through the ropes cover. Chafe is also the enemy of all rope halyards, whether they are polyester, or more exotic materials like Spectra to Vectran. If you have switched from polyester halyards to one of these materials, you may also have to change sheaves. Halyard sheaves scored for both wire and rope are unsuitable for use with some other types of halyards.

Key wear spots for rope halyards are at the headboard shackle, over sheaves, and where the halyard is held by cam cleats or line stoppers. Rope halyards should be ordered with extra length to allow yearly shortening to remove the work sections at the top of the mast. This advice applies only to rope materials and braids that are easily re-spliced after moderate use, or those ropes that happily take a knot. Remember knotting will reduce strength significantly, so know your loads, the strength reduction a knot will impart, inspect frequently, and use common sense. Splices are preferable; but a halyard hitch (or some variation) serves fine on smaller vessels. On these boats typical halyard diameters offer a large safety margin, even when you take into account the strength reduction introduced by a knot. On larger vessels the safety margins in halyards are achieved through high-strength, low-stretch fibers and braids that may not lend themselves to knotting or re-splicing. For a guide to halyards materials and breaking strengths see Practical Sailors Guide to Choosing Cost-Efficient Halyard Materials .

Although re-splicing old rope is difficult, it is not impossible. Rigger Brion Toss gives the following advice for sending in old rope for splicing:

“ We prefer not to splice used rope, so if we agree to work on your used rope – we will ask you to first wash it with soap flakes. Put the coiled gasket of rope (see instructions in the Rigger’s Apprentice ) in the washing machine on gentle cycle. rinse well, and add fabric softener. Then undo the coil and loop it around the garage to dry in the air or take it outside and do the same. Now your rope will be soft and much nicer to handle.”

We also described the best way to clean rope in June 2011.

Halyard shackles also deserve close attention, as I explored in my blog on The Case of the Broken Snap Shackle .

Another surprising trouble spot on the average keel-stepped aluminum mast is the mast boot. Water lying between the rubber mast boot and the mast tube can cause severe corrosion of the aluminum tube on boats used in salt water. This is particularly common in mast boots secured with stainless-steel hose clamps, and corrosion can occur even when no water reaches the interior of the boat. At least once a year, loosen the mast boot. Bedding the boot to the mast will alleviate but not necessarily completely prevent this type of damage. The area under the mast boot is probably second only to the mast heel as a potential trouble spot.

A once a year top-to-bottom inspection of the rig is a simple way to prevent minor problems from becoming major. With the exception of structurally marginal racing masts, most rig losses are caused by component failures that are largely detectable before problems occur.

While it is far easier to examine the rig with it removed from the boat, the same inspection can be conducted, less quickly and comfortably, from the bosuns chair. Your time and effort will most certainly be rewarded, and if you’re lucky you’ll also enjoy the view.

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Well, in my opinion, there is one note missing in all articles about rigging replacement. It is the fact that the quality of the old standing rigging made in the USA or other countries (not China!) is way above today’s offers on the market! All China-made rigging like chains, cables, lines, etc, etc is not up to the standard specifications we used in the past, which leads to questionable dependability and safety. So, if one finds that old rigging, is not at visible fault one should think twice about replacing the old rigging. In the past, we used to replace standing rigging at least every 10 years. It did make sense. In the times when we are flooded with poor quality marine products from China, I find out in my practice that this is not necessary unless a REPUTABLE RIGGER will advise doing so! Then make sure it is not from China. I am not a rigger or marketer just a user with hundreds of miles at sea and experiencing/witnessing constant and growing problems with so-called cheap marine staff on boats! Now, remember it is how I see it, and you need to make your own decision in those matters, it’s your safety!

I’ve replaced rigging numerous times because it was time, but the actual failures and close calls deserve to be called out:

Toggles formed from bent stainless. I’ve had several crack mid-bend, aggravated by rigging that was a bit slack during hard going (it is hard to keep the leeward shrouds tight on light multihulls00the boat is not stiff enough)

Coated rigging. Just as coated lifelines are a risk factor, coated shrouds and waterstays are a menace. I’ve had two fail, fortunately with no more harm than a runaway reacher. No coated rigging.

Moused U-bolt pin backed out. The safety wire snapped. I only noticed it when it was on the last two threads! It was also not the first time I’ve seen rigging wire snap, almost certainly because it was over stressed when installing. That’s why you check.

Wire halyard grew some meat hooks. These jammed the head block, making it impossible to lower the main and requiring climbing underway (no climbing gear on the boat, so that was… different).

Dyneema. I know it’s the rage, but watch the age and condition. I had a shroud tensioner snap (did not result in dismasting) probably due to age, though it should have been 20 times the required strength. Perhaps there was unseen chafe (PS testing has shown that minor damamge can weaken it more than you would think, depending on the exact pattern). There is still a lot we don’t know about monitoring Dyneema.

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Inspecting Your Mast and Rigging

Your sailboat rigging should be thoroughly checked once a season. The best way to do this is by pulling the mast or masts out of the boat and running down a check list. One can also spot most major problems from a bosun’s chair , and if done regularly, is generally more cost effective. It is strongly recommended that you have the spars pulled at least once every 5 years depending on the conditions that your boat and its rigging have been subjected to.

To help you do your own rigging check, here are some general guidelines for the average sloop rigged boat. For any specific questions or concerns, please don’t hesitate to call .                                                                                                                                                    

A.    DECK LEVEL AND BELOW DECKS

1. Check the boom gooseneck for worn pins, cracked welds, etc.…

2. Check the boom for bends or dents.

3. Check all block attachment points on the boom for fatigue or wear, i.e. vang bails, sheet bails.

4. Check all blocks and shackle attachment points for bent pins, distorted shackles, missing or loose ring pins, etc.…

5. To check halyards, attach a spare line (or the bitter end of the same line) to the shackle end and pull up on the halyard slowly. Check the line and check the shackle for proper operation.

6. Check all shroud, stay, and lifeline swages for cracks.

7. Check lifelines where they go through stanchion post for excessive wear.

8. Make sure the mast sits flush on the mast step.

9. If your mast is keel stepped, make sure the mast is securely chocked where it goes through the deck.

10. Check the chain plate attachment points below deck for wear. Also check for signs of  rot or any evidence of water damage.

11. Make sure the chain plates or chain plate cover plates appear sealed and tight where they go through the deck.  

12. Check turnbuckles for bends in the body or stud, cracks, excessive rust, as well as ensure all turnbuckles are secured properly. Either by way of cotter pin, locking nut or ring pin.                   

B.   THE MASTHEAD – Before going aloft please consult with a professional as severe injury or death can occur!!!

1. Check all welds for cracks.

2. Check any masthead gear for secure attachment.

3. Check that all pins are properly secured, either by way of cotter pin or ring pin.

4. Make sure the sheaves turn freely and the pins that hold them-in are secure.

5. Check for sharp edges where halyards exit.  

6. Make sure all fasteners, rivets, screws  are tight.

7. Check head and backstay swages for cracks.

8. If you have an external mainsail track, as you descend, check the fasteners to make sure they are tight .

C.  SHROUDS

  1. Check swages for cracks.

  2. Check the shroud tangs for wear.

  3. Check  to make sure all clevis pins are properly secured.

 4 . Make sure the tang bolt (if present) is tight and locked in a secure manner.

D.   SPREADERS

  1. If spreaders or brackets are welded, look for stress cracks (see pic below).

  2. Make sure spreader bases are secure.

  3. Make sure the spreader is well fastened to the base.

4. Tape or silicone over any sharp bolts or cotter pins in this area.  

5. Check spreader tips, where spreader intersects the wire, for corrosion (remove any tape or boots) and ensure spreader tips are secured to upper shrouds by seizing or clamp s.

For rod rigging service and inspection intervals, read more  here .

….Have a question? Drop us a line  or leave a comment below. We’d love to hear from you.

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How and When to Inspect the Mast of Your Sailboat

• November 14, 2023

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The importance of regular mast inspections for your sailboat.

If you’re a sailing enthusiast, you know how important it is to keep your boat in top condition. Regular technical inspections of the mast and rigging are essential tasks to ensure the safety of the crew and the protection of the boat. In this article, we’ll teach you when, why, and how to perform a technical inspection of the mast of your sailboat.

Why should you inspect the mast?

The mast is one of the most important elements of any sailboat. It is the main support for the sail and rigging, and its poor condition can have serious consequences. Wind, sun, and saltwater can cause damage to the mast and rigging, which could result in a breakage or loss of control of the boat. Regular technical inspection of the mast will allow you to detect any kind of problem, such as cracks, corrosion, fatigue, deformations, etc. This way, you can take preventive measures before problems become more serious and costly.

When is an inspection required?

The frequency of technical inspections will depend on how much you use your sailboat. Usually, it’s recommended to do an inspection every year, especially before starting the sailing season. It’s also recommended to do an inspection after sailing in extreme conditions, such as in a long-distance regatta or adverse weather conditions.

On the other hand, if you notice any changes in the behavior of the sailboat during sailing, you should stop and check the mast and rigging for any problems. Additionally, if you’ve noticed any problems or had any incidents during sailing, it’s important to do an immediate inspection to detect and solve the problem.

Should you need more details on how to keep your mast and rigging in optimal conditions, don’t miss out on our comprehensive guide: ‘Recommended Guide for Optimal Mast and Rigging Maintenance.’ You’ll uncover useful tips to ensure the safety and performance of your sailboat.

How to do it?

The inspection of the mast of your sailboat should be done by a professional, especially if you don’t have experience in the matter. A rigging expert can inspect your sailboat and detect any problems in the mast and rigging since they have the appropriate equipment and the necessary experience and knowledge to do it safely and effectively. However, if you prefer to do it yourself, you should follow these steps:

• Visually inspect the mast and rigging for any signs of wear or damage. Look for dents, corrosion, cracks, or bends in the tubes, pulleys, and connectors. Pay attention to the splices of the ropes and make sure they are well secured.
• Climb up the mast to visually inspect the rigging up close. If you have a very high mast, you will need to use harnesses and safety ropes to prevent falls. Inspect each piece of rigging, including the shrouds, stays, and pairs of the cross. Look for signs of damage, corrosion, and wear. Also, check the pieces that connect the rigging to the hull and mast.
• Inspect the sails. Carefully examine each sail for signs of wear, tears, or cracks. Verify that the sheets and ropes are in good condition and well adjusted.
• Check the tension of the rigging ropes. Excessive or inadequate tension may indicate problems in the mast or connectors.
• Verify that the pulleys of the rigging turn freely and without obstructions.
• Ensure that the mast anchoring system is secure and in good condition.
• Inspect the electrical wiring inside the mast to ensure that it is in good condition and properly connected.
• If you have a folding mast, check that the hinges are properly adjusted and in good condition.
• Check the inside of the mast for possible damage or deformations.

If you detect any problems, don’t hesitate to contact a rigging expert for advice and repair.

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In Part 1 we got the mast out of the boat and worked for hours inspecting a bunch of stuff…and now we get to work some more.

Still, all this effort is worth it to prevent a gravity storm, so let’s carry on.

And, just so you don’t totally despair at the prospect of reading all this boring detail, don’t forget that this is leading to the much-requested rig-inspection checklist .

So grab a cup of highly caffeinated coffee and let’s do it right. Deferred gratification is good for mast karma.

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Hi John, A very nice series of articles. A few thoughts: There are (perhaps were at this time) rod rigging maintenance books that did not mention a dab of grease on the cold molded heads prior to re-assembly My rigger, now retired, said rod should be replaced every 100,000nm, but he said it depended on the size of the rod. It has been a while, but I remember larger rod needed to be replaced sooner than the rod on smaller boats. I would be curious about whether that can be confirmed. In Europe, I had a required periodic insurance survey which mentioned replacement of wire rigging every 8 years and rod at 10 years. I tried to challenge that and failed: in part as I was told all surveyors in the UK and EU adhered to that schedule. Mileage did not matter. In a number of my overwintering yards, over the years, I have had to leave the mast up. I always pressured up the backstay adjuster a bit and firmed up the running backstays to keep the rig from movement. I am always surprised when 6 months later everything is as I left it. (Having pressure on the backstay adjuster also keeps the adjuster from “breathing” as the atmospheric pressure changes which saves wear on the seals- I never leave it completely slack even at anchor). If it fails, there is a default position for my backstay adjuster that is basically full slack. I tried to tension the rig by bringing the turnbuckle to its most closed position and the backstay was not nearly tensioned enough when it was full slack. I had a pair of “tangs” made that were a few inches shorter than the default length of the adjuster. This allowed me to replace the whole adjuster with the tangs and get good tension on the backstay, albeit not adjustable. I was living aboard full-time and this was nice as well because I could continue to sail while the adjuster was off the boat for servicing, which often took a while if needing to be sent off. I wanted to consider DIY Dyform rigging when I re-rigged in the UK, but was told that Dyform was the name of the wire made in the UK, but that the company had stopped making it as they could not compete with the compacted wire coming out of Asia. I attempted to explore the province of the compacted wire I could find, but that was too confusing. Riggers I consulted and were working with were wary, so I went with rod. This was 10+ years ago, so please check it out. One rigger I know and some experienced sailors say that a rig that has been to sea in a hurricane should have the rigging made new. Same advice for a really hard grounding. In other words, some shock loading and abuse can be cause for re-rigging. My best, Dick Stevenson, s/v Alchemy

All good information. The big take aways for me are that no one really knows what the right replacement periods are, and further we have to guard against those expressing opinions that are more about serving their own interests than based on any real facts. I know of one rigger that states on their site that all rod should be replaced every six years, clearly more about commercial gain than anything else.

As to getting longer than ten years out of Rod, I was offered that at 12 years in 2019 by Pantaenius UK as long as I had the heads NDT tested, so I think that is a valid option, although, as always, it depends on the underwriter you end up talking to.

Can’t really see how the size of the rod would make a difference to required replacement time. I would think that would be more about the safety margins the designer had built into the rod sizing than anything else.

Although it is only of interest to a minuscule number of AAC readers, you are correct in noting that wooden boats, or at least plank on frame ones, cannot stand having their rig set up so hard that the lee shrouds do not go slack when hard on the wind. The traditional structure is simply not rigid enough although a modern wood/epoxy composite boat may be. The resulting flapping around is no doubt hard on the gear, but not as destructive as over stressing the structure would be. I wonder about the rigidity of some fibreglass boats as well, having sailed aboard some that did a lot of creaking and groaning in rough weather.

Another “advantage” of a wooden boat with a wooden mast is that the mast needs varnish every year. This is infinitely easier to do when it is horizontal rather than vertical and a lot easier when all of the standing and running rigging is removed. So, I unstep the mast and strip the gear every year which forces a close inspection of everything.

I have always had the notion that bronze turnbuckles, toggles and related hardware are not as subject to fatigue failure as stainless, but perhaps that is incorrect.

As you might of guessed, I put in that exception based on education from the horribly overpaid AAC wooden boat consultant…you.

Certainly makes sense since plank on frame wood will, in my limited experence, tend to permanently change shape over time if in any way over loaded. I’m thinking about wooden boats that hog over time, when I say that.

I wonder if this is a function of plank on frame not being a homogenous material, so that over loading changes the relationship between the planks and frames—slippage if you will.

And extrapolating from that maybe that’s why fibreglass boats, if properly constructed, are happy enough to have the lee shrouds tight without permanent damage.

A key point in all of this is that (counterintuitively) having the lee shrouds just firm when going to windward does not increase the maximum load on rig or hull when underway. Said load is governed by the maximum stability of the boat.

However, said no-slack tune, does increase the load on the hull when the boat is at rest, so I’m thinking that may be the problem.

A good discussion of that here: https://loosnaples.com/how-tos/tension-gauges/

And yes, as far as I know, bronze does not have the deterioration issues of stainless steel.

This all seems very reasonable. At the same time, it is very frustrating to me that we throw away huge amounts of rigging that is still in perfectly fine shape by coming up with a conservative time and miles based approach. In truth, conservatively sized rigging that has been well looked after and not damaged could go indefinitely. Unfortunately, I don’t know how you would practically implement this as conservatively sized would need to be quantified for each design and then you would need to make sure that it was always in good shape and never had any bad loading (forestays are subject to not nice loads so I would still replace them). And your engineer is spot on that little knicks on the surface are a really big deal in any highly loaded structure. So all in, I think your recommendation is about right.

One technique that I find very helpful when inspecting wire is to simply run your hand around it while it has a preload on it and make sure it is still round, if it feels lumpy at all, you have a problem. I do this around any areas that could be higher stress such as at the exits of fittings and around spreader tips. This is in no way a substitution for a more detailed check but it is something that you can check very quickly on a quick deck walk or whenever up the rig. I am going to have to try the trick of a phone for a magnifying glass, it will certainly be more stylish than the magnifying visor I use.

Regarding wire quality, it is definitely an issue and it is actually an issue with most materials now. The more reputable suppliers are likely to include a material cert and/or a certificate of conformance with each reel of wire without even being asked. Asking your rigger is not a bad idea although I suspect not all will be able to produce one even if they originally received it. I have gotten a copy with each set of wire that I have bought. One thing that I think is probably equally important is if you are having a rigger do a swage, ask for proof of calibration on the swaging machine. The dies in these wear and other things can get out and then you may have a swage that looks good but won’t hold well. I can think of 2 riggers who told me that they haven’t had any issues so they couldn’t see why it would be checked and on one of them, I looked at a terminal in their shop and could see it was no good but they were very busy making ends for people.

Great comment, full of great tips, thank you. I will include them in the final check list and then update these in depth articles with them.

To that end, three follow up questions:

• Could you elaborate a bit on checking for out of round by feel. I’m having trouble visualizing how I could feel an inconsistency, particularly in small diameter wire, that would not be gross enough to jump out at me visually.
• Do you know anything about the process of calibrating a swaging machine, and who would do that?
• What was it you saw on the swage that was “no good” that tipped you off that the machine was out of calibration?

Regarding feeling the wire to see if it is out of round, it just feels a tiny bit lumpy to me. If you take a 50′ long shroud, each individual strand is significantly longer, like maybe 60′. Winding around each other is what makes the end product only 50′. If you have a broken strand, the rest of the strands are trying to make a straighter line which is a lower energy state so they will pull in and force the loose strand out a bit as it is no longer held in by tension. It is subtle but you can feel it. I have felt it a few times including on a boat I was about to deliver, my parents daysailor and some club boats at a club my wife used to belong to so we could sail weeknights too. In all cases that I can remember, the broken strand had broken just inside the swage fitting so a visual inspection would not have caught it right away and we really had to look and sometimes cut to find it. I don’t know the incidence rate of breaking just inside the fitting versus just outside and it may be that there are many more failures outside but those are more easily caught. Regardless, if a strand is fully broken and there is tension on the wire, it will feel out of round in that area.

I am not totally sure what the calibration process is for these machines but I am aware of a few things that are done to check or calibrate. There are a series of MIL standards (MS51844E for example) for this stuff that I believe most people will use but there may be other standards I am not aware of.  The most basic check is measuring the OD of a swaged fitting which can be done with a micrometer or calipers. This is actually something that can be done on every fitting and given how quick it is, may make sense as a customer. You can find charts of the acceptable range pretty easily, here is an example from Hayn:  https://hayn.com/swage-specifications/

I would hope at the very least that any rigger has a go/no-go gauge and is checking the fittings but I am not confident that actually happens. You can also do a pull test of a few samples. There are many calibration services out there that handle all sorts of different tools and machinery and it is very common for people with equipment to have a calibration contract with them. There are generally 2 types of services, one where they actually perform a calibration and adjust or replace components as needed or one where they simply provide a measurement of where you are in your calibration range and then it is your responsibility to get service if needed. In truth, a lot of the calibration checks can be done yourself but you don’t get to claim that a professional calibration service did it so it depends on what you need. The real question is what you do if you measure and find you are out of calibration. Typically, that would mean you would need to check all samples since the last calibration that passed which is part of the reason why you try to make sure to never fail by doing preventative maintenance and regular calibration checks. Having said all this, it may be that you should either plan to measure and visually inspect the fittings upon receipt or you should be certain that your rigger is using a go/no-go (that is isn’t worn, these actually typically get calibration checked too) or measuring.

What you will see for poor swages depends a bit on the machine used, I think that by far the most common will be roller but there is some rotary going on in the marine world too. As Colin mentioned, some fittings can come out of straight. I don’t actually know at what point a fitting would fail but if I could visually see this, I wouldn’t want it unless the fitting manufacturer had a spec for acceptable that it was within. In the case that I could see, the fittings were noticeably not round either due to the dies being too worn or the shafts being out of parallel but I don’t think any number of passes (2 is usually the recommended and the max is like 3-4) would have fixed it. I also strongly suspect that a basic caliper measurement would show that the fittings had not been fully compressed but I didn’t need to go that far to know to walk away.

That’s great, thanks. As soon as you pointed out that a lump would appear to indicate a broken strand inside a swage, I got it. I will definitely add that to the check list and the above.

Also, thanks for the fill on checking swages, I will add that too.

Eric. What are your thought on checking the head diameters with a mic or caliper ( don’t like these as much, not as accurate) when the mast is out? Would there be apossibility of wear or deformation of the heads on older rigging? I had a surveyor tell me that the rig was too tight on The CS 30 that I bought last year. I am wondering if this constitutes the abuse that John mentioned? Thank you.

Colin Post CS 30 Top Hat

These are not measurements that should change over time, they tell you if the original swaging job was done properly. The outside diameters of swage fittings are not subject to wear and if there has been plastic deformation, that is a problem and you want to know it and condemn the fitting. Good calipers are fine for this, the tolerance band is reasonably wide but using a mic certainly doesn’t hurt and can help if you are right on the edge of the band.

How did your surveyor determine that the rig was overtensioned? Did they use a gauge? Did you sail the boat in 20 knots of wind and look at lee shrouds? Was the mast step deformed? Very few people will just be able to pull on the rig at the dock and do the mental calculation of the wire diameter, the span, etc and make an accurate determination. My limited experience with surveyors unfortunately suggests that you should be suspicious of statements like this from them. Still, it suggests you should carefully go through everything much like John has had to do with his new boat.

I would agree with Eric’s concerns about the surveyor’s assessment since it’s difficult for me to understand how he arrived at it in any sort of reliable way. It’s actually pretty difficult to over tension the rig on most production boats as the boat will bend long before the safety margins on the wire is exceeded.

Not all insurers are adamant about replacement of rigging at 8 or 10 years, so it’s worth asking them. As our rig was in perfectly good condition at ten years I asked our insurer if they would accept a rig inspection by a professional. They did, he did an excellent and through job and they extended our cover for two years. I’m in total agreement that rigging is not an area to skimp at all. Eric’s comment about bad quality swages due to worn and/or deformed swages is absolutely right. I’ve seen new swages that were bent or creased on a number of occasions and that’s just asking for trouble.

That’s good to hear. I remember you getting that done here in Nova Scotia. I will add that too.

Interesting discussion. My take on the considerable rig on Tanielle is to use SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel in rod form. I will machine end fittings from the same material and weld them to the rod. This ss is the same strength as Nitronic 50 but has far superior fatigue properties. My caps would require 26mm 316 but only 20mm 2205 rod saving weight and windage. So far the majority of mast manufacturers end communication once this is suggested so I imagine it will be impossible to insure the rig. I would see this rig lasting a very long time and probably never needing to be replaced. Of course it would still need inspecting and there will be galvanic issues with aluminium, eg foils and masts. An australian company Arcus Wire has the Hamma range of 2205 wire which I suspect is Indian. My next step will be to ask AE Smith the NZ rig engineer who did all the rig and mast calculations for Hoek design on Tanielle, to look at the 2205 issues and benefits.

Hi William, Your suggestions seem interesting. I’m not very competent on metals, but have noticed the benefits of duplex stainless. My question here wound be the welds. Wouldn’t they disrupt the uniform strength of the rod? The superior strength and corrosion resistance of duplex is usually explained by its tighter bidirectional crystalline structure. The welding process would leave a transition zone where the cold formed rod material goes from welded to not welded. I’d assume the crystalline structure would be left not homogenous, which would seem to be a weak spot? Even if this isn’t the case, I’d be wary of the transition from the thin rod to the larger terminal. Just the change in dimensions might make a focus point for loads…? All this is just questions, curiosity, not my opinions.

Since you seem positive to exotic materials and performance, a carbon mast would solve the corrosion problem, while simultaneously saving a lot of weight and being far stronger. While I’m at it: Using Dyneema for the standing rigging will also save a lot of weight, and money, and is easy to inspect and replace, which on the other hand must be done far more often. It will also be thicker than rod, but about the same as ordinary wire, so more drag in the air than rod. In my opinion, Dyneema is the only smart solution for a cruising multihull, due to the wide platform and rig configurations, while on a cruising monohull, I don’t think so. The high end racers use high modulus carbon rod these days. I’d never suggest that for a cruiser, but it does give minimum drag and max stiffness.

This is way past my pay grade, but your question about welding jumped into my mind too.

Hi William,

That’s interesting. That said, although I’m in no way qualified to evaluate your idea, my general recommendation for cruisers is to stay away from pioneering new technologies: https://www.morganscloud.com/2013/10/25/want-to-get-out-cruising-dont-be-a-pioneer/

Apologies if this is all obvious to you, I am not sure what you have studied in this regard. The old rule of thumb is that the higher strength an alloy is, the harder it is to attach to it. I have experience with Duplex 2205 but never with welding it and I would share some concerns voiced here about that unless there was a lot of tightly controlled post processing. Not only does welding affect the crystal structure, it leaves a prestress and leaves geometries that have stress concentrations if not processed right.

Most techniques of attachment like cut threads remove material and creates stress concentrations which decrease strength which is not good. There are some forming techniques such as used in heading rod, rolling threads, etc that build up material but these create geometric stress concentrations unless spread over an enormous area so that all changes are incredibly gradual.

There are some cool tricks that you can play to deal with a lot of this but I think applying them to rigging would get quite exotic and you should be looking to carbon or PBO or whatever first. For example, in fatigue applications engineers will sometimes spec things like shot peening, laser peening, cryogenic treating, etc but these all require process development and would require you to put a lot of different vendors together. I have spec’ed all the processes I listed at some point but they were always highly specialized applications where there would be lots of testing and we were willing to pay a lot for the performance needed.

Hi Stein, John and Eric, Welding duplex gives 100% strength. Tanielle is a 24m ketch built entirely from duplex. We got welding tips from the duplex supplier then did our own destructive tests It took 3 attempts with a 100 ton brake press to break a 30mm x 6mm piece joined by welding. The break was in the HAZ zone. The 2 welders were then certified by Lloyds as was the steel and welding wire. The yacht welds were also xrayed. In welding the rodto the forks I would drill a hole in the fork , then cut slots so the welds are in shear. The weld around the top would only be for appearance and to avoid a crevice. The fork would be machined from a solid bar. 2205 comes in differrent flavours and granular structures and my flavour is SAF 2205 which has a much finer granular structure and increased strength even before heat treatment. All up we used 38 kilometers of welding wire so can probably claim a little experience. One of the welders was a retired welding teacher. http://www.tanielle.com.au

Hi William, That’s one impressive boat!!! It also seems like you have, to put it mildly, done your due diligence on this material, and on a lot of other relevant topics. My only gripe is that it seems a pity to hide that material behind paint. I know it’s not realistic or smart to have a polished stainless steel hull, but what a vision that would have been! Thanks for sharing and congratulations with the boat!

Interesting, I will have to look into welding duplex more at some point. You have quite the impressive project there, I think you must have posted a picture or a link in the past as I have a vague recollection of this. I can now see more of what your thinking is. It would be interesting to look at different options and see the best way to reduce weight aloft such as going to a carbon fiber mast or synthetic rigging or duplex rigging or whatever else there may be.

Ignoring weld strength for a minute, if I understand what you are proposing, you still are introducing a pretty significant stress due to geometry. Do you have a plan for how to deal with this? Any change in diameter or shape is a stress concentration including a change to a larger diameter and in this case it means tension in the surface of the material which is the worst if you want to discuss fatigue. The concentration is due to the stiffness of the bigger diameter being greater and being at a greater radius so if you draw your stress lines, they really concentrate around the step as they try to transfer load out. Rod fittings are a decent example of about as practical a mitigation to this as is reasonable, the shape of the end is designed to give a nice large fillet and the mating fitting puts compressive stress on it that also helps but still it is the site where you will have issues.

I am guessing that the rod doesn’t have good enough tolerances and is too difficult to post machine to allow you to do a shrink fit to it? The advantage of that is you can make a very gradually tapered socket to shrink fit on so the stress concentration is much less pronounced. I have never seen a shrunk fit fitting on rigging but most rigging is small enough in diameter that you would need very tight tolerances and a large temperature differential for it to work whereas yours is big enough that it starts to work a lot better although I suspect the tolerances are still prohibitive.

Hi Eric, Thanks for your kind words. I had in mind discontinuous V1 so the lower could heavier and allow for welding a custom fork tapered to the top. Alternatively the rod itself could be threaded. Each of the higher segments would also be oversize although reducing in diameter as we went higher. Of course this all needs designing and finite element analysis. I once had a rudder that was a shrink fit and Tanielle has 4 taper locks to connect the quadrant and ram arms to its 110mm stock. I don`t think I would be comfortable with either method on rigging. Perhaps a shrink fit combined with a swage press could work and could be worth experimenting with to determine breaking load and repeat consistency. While I take your point on fatigue and stress concentrations the safe option is simply to overbuild. The existing rig design (see website) has the V1 as 115 Nitronic 22.2mm 48t UTS , V2 as 01 Nitronic 19.5MM 36.5 UTS V3 19mm Dyform. I woud up the V1 to 25.4mm Duplex V2 to 20mm Duplex and the Dyform to Duplex wire. My intention here is to elicit the wisdom of the group and get the sort of feedback you have so kindly provided

Do you believe your rule of “no loose lee shrouds …/… ” should be applied as well for catamarans?

My assumption is that catamarans have more structural “flexibility” on the lateral axis, compared to the lateral “stiffness” of single hulls, due to the structure holding the two hulls together, and hence may justify tuning with loose lee shrouds in heavy wind, without correlatively flapping lose during winter periods.

Thank you in advance.

Full rule: “ This is why all boats, with the possible exception of wooden ones, should be tuned so that the lee shrouds are not loose when hard on the wind and fully loaded—applies to wire standing rigging, too”

Hi Patrick, As I have many decades of multihull experience, including professional racing in the Formula classes, plus designing and building boats, I can say; no, that rule does not entirely apply to multihulls. I’m fairly certain that John also agrees about this and just forgot to mention it.

Most (not all) multihulls are indeed far more flexible, meaning that it’s often not possible to remove all slack. In most cases it’s just the leeward top shroud that is slack, and it’s not on a spreader. (Diamond stays should never be slack.) The much wider base means that the shroud angle is far better, meaning that the mast doesn’t get too much play, even with a lot of slack under load. I prefer to tension it as much as possible. At least make sure it’s never slack when not sailing. If tightening hard, be sure to know the structure of that specific boat.

The trouble with Lagoon 45 that has become very public lately, via Parlay Revival on YouTube, is a good example of too tight for a poorly made structure. Lagoon is by no means the only manufacturer with this build method and weaknesses. Most “budget” production boats, also monos, have the same problems to some extent. Wood is beautiful, strong and cheap, but it rots in water. For some “strange” reason wood inside boat structures tends to get wet. Why builders can’t grasp this and why they keep using wood for structural pieces is a mystery to me… (Nope. That’s just irony. Google “planned obsolence” or “The light bulb conspiracy.”)

The performance will not suffer much from this slack, since the fore and aft rig tension is what matters and that should indeed be properly tight. If you have a cat with no backstay or such, it’s a good idea to set the main halyard aft when not sailing. Tension it well to keep the headstay and the rest tight. I also usually put ropes across the head stay or wound in a spiral around the sail, to reduce oscillation in strong wind.

Even though wooden boats and multihulls often need the shrouds and perhaps more to not be entirely tight all the time, that doesn’t mean they have less of the problems other boats have when a slack rig piece is vibrating. It just means that we need to be more vigilant in our maintenance.

Hi Patrick,

I would go along with Stein’s answer, particularly since he has way more experience with multihulls than I do.

I would also change the rule around: if we have a boat on which we can’t keep the lee shrouds firm, then we should not fit said boat with rod rigging.

Hi John, You mention disassembly of compression cone terminals. I tried to do that on 2 occasions. The first was when I wanted to replace a bent segment of my roller furling profile and the second when I replaced the cap shrouds. In all cases it turned out to be impossible, at least to me, to disassemble the terminal with any hope of reusing the wire it was attached to. Of course no problem with the cap shrouds, they had to go anyway, but annoying in the case of the headstay inside the furling extrusion: The only way to disassemble the terminal, (pushing the terminal’s body away from the wedged up wire) was to cut the wire one or two inches from the terminal, and hammering down on the protruding wire with brute force. That did the trick finally. Not even fixating the wire in a vise and hammering on the lower end of the terminal – with a wooden block for protection – was enough to make the terminal body budge. Not to mention that the vise probably did the wire no good. Of course it’s possible to unscrew the eye or fork, is that what you mean by disassembly ? My conclusion is: never fiddle with a Norseman terminal unless you want to replace (or shorten) the wire. Besides, it seems impossible to get hold of new cones as Norsemans are no longer made. But there are other brands of course. Do you or anybody else know a way to disassemble a Norseman without destroying part of the wire ?

I have taken a Stayloc apart successfully, but it was on flexible wire (steering cable) not 1×19, so not the same thing at all, and probably not as highly loaded, and that was a struggle, so I think you are right and will make a note of that in the above when I edit it to add everyone’s wisdom.

Hi John, I just found mention of the “disassembly for inspection” here:

https://www.practical-sailor.com/sails-rigging-deckgear/hidden-causes-of-rig-failure

and that makes it clear to me that by disassembly really is meant to unscrew eye or fork or whatever fitting there is from the terminal’s body and have a good look at the dead end of the wire. It could be called “opening” rather than disassembly. And of course it makes sense as the bad stuff seems to be happening where you can see it after having the terminal opened. But the threads have to be locked anew.

As an aside: Tylaska makes the cones for the Norseman fittings. They seem to have all sizes in stock. I needed new ones mainly for the expensive backstay isolators. As I have 2 independent backstays I decided to live with the old isolators although I replaced the wire.

That’s a good point. That said, I was under the impression, but could easily be wrong, that once we back off the thread on the eye, we are supposed to replace the cone before putting it back together. If that’s true, we will be starting again, and almost certainly cutting the wire.

I googled around a bit, but could not find a definitive answer on that. Does anyone know for sure?

Hi John, I just replaced my lower shrouds and the backstays with new wire. The backstays had (and have) Norsemans on their lower ends and there are these isolators with 2 each Norsemans. So I gained some experience with this type of compression cone fittings. I see no reason to replace the cone if the terminal is just opened (unscrewed) for inspection as the cone is not affected by this operation. Getting the threads cleaned enough for a proper redo of the loctite treatment could be a problem though. I didn’t have this problem as I replaced the wire anyway and so had good access to the threads. I found a good way to get the terminal off the wire in the process: cut the wire directly at the terminal and back out the cone with the wedged up wire out of the terminal’s body with a suitable punch, that way losing only an Inch or so of wire. This short length can in many cases be compensated for with the turnbuckle. Also I wondered at first why the cone has to be replaced at all, but once you have the wedged up wire in hand it becomes very clear that the cone is compressed on the wire’s core so much that you’re just not going to get if off undamaged. Bottom line: if not sure about the terminal then the best way is to check if the turnbuckle allows for some shortening of the wire and if so, cut and disassemble the terminal and redo with a new cone. One could also add a toggle to make up for the lost length if necessary, although not quite so elegant.

A good analysis that makes very good sense to me. Thank you. Also, thanks for the tip on getting the cone off with minimum wire loss.

I do still wonder if there is some reason that the cone should be replaced after just unscrewing the fitting for inspection, but I have to admit I can’t put a logical reason together to support that. What I should do is call say StayLoc and ask them, but right now I’m so busy with stuff I have promised that I’m scared to add something else to the list!

I watched one rig come down. Fortunately, it was inshore and was a rotating mast, so it lifted off the socket and the mast was undamaged. We helped them collect the pieces and towed them in. No one was hurt.

The cause? A bent toggle fractured. I had two of those crack on my Stiletto 2 (both in what you marked as the “danger area”) but I caught both during one of my regular walk-arounds (not the spring inspection–they were fine then). Ever since, I make a point of looking at them every few months.

Thanks, John! You say above “…because we discovered that she had been stored over at least one winter, and probably two, with the mast in—never a good idea, in my view…” I winter my boat in Rhode Island, and it seems 95%+ of owners leave the mast up. I’ve been taking mine down each winter, and storing it indoors. But I feel like the oddball. Would you please elaborate on this.

Thanks! Anthony

Hi Anthony,

Good on you. You are not an “oddball”. https://www.morganscloud.com/2014/11/01/the-dangers-of-storing-with-the-mast-stepped/

Added to the reasons I list in the above article, leaving the mast in add significantly to the wear and tear on all components of the rig due to constant vibration over the winters.

Hi Anthony and John, That said, and I agree, but most of the mast damage I have seen over the years has been on the unstepping and stepping of the mast and its storage (and wallet damage). I suspect the breaking point is closer to taking the mast out, but may be dependent on the skipper being present when the work is done: for example, I have watched turnbuckles dragged in the gravel/dirt on masts when no owner was present, but the crew was far more careful when I was there lending a hand and being involved. My best, Dick Stevenson, s/v Alchemy

I agree on being there when the mast is unstepped, or stepped. Some tips on that here: https://www.morganscloud.com/2014/12/06/9-tips-to-make-unstepping-your-mast-easier/

Hi. What to use for lubrication of the turnbuckles? A Google search yields so many contradicting recommendations. I have used Lewmar winch grease (which is a calcium grease, and which is supposed to be VERY good), but Selden makes a rigging OIL that they recommend using (twice a year). Other say to use a molybdenum grease, and I even see some recommend Mc Lube SailKote.

Thanks, Arne.

Hi Arne, I hav used anhydrous lanolin for decades and been very happy. Lasts for a whole season or longer. I will be interested in what others use. My best, Dick Stevenson, sv Alchemy

I use my favourite Lubriplate, as I do for most everything on the boat. 130 AA https://www.lubriplate.com/Products/Grease/Multi-Purpose-Greases/130-Series/NO-130-AA

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The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva)

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Pages:  379-406

In 1988, the Tuvan Archaeological Expedition (led by M. E. Kilunovskaya and V. A. Semenov) discovered a unique burial of the early Iron Age at Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva. There are two burial mounds of the Aldy-Bel culture dated by 7th century BC. Within the barrows, which adjoined one another, forming a figure-of-eight, there were discovered 7 burials, from which a representative collection of artifacts was recovered. Burial 5 was the most unique, it was found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, with a tightly closed lid. Due to the preservative properties of larch and lack of air access, the coffin contained a well-preserved mummy of a child with an accompanying set of grave goods. The interred individual retained the skin on his face and had a leather headdress painted with red pigment and a coat, sewn from jerboa fur. The coat was belted with a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles. Besides that, a leather quiver with arrows with the shafts decorated with painted ornaments, fully preserved battle pick and a bow were buried in the coffin. Unexpectedly, the full-genomic analysis, showed that the individual was female. This fact opens a new aspect in the study of the social history of the Scythian society and perhaps brings us back to the myth of the Amazons, discussed by Herodotus. Of course, this discovery is unique in its preservation for the Scythian culture of Tuva and requires careful study and conservation.

Keywords: Tuva, Early Iron Age, early Scythian period, Aldy-Bel culture, barrow, burial in the coffin, mummy, full genome sequencing, aDNA

Information about authors: Marina Kilunovskaya (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Vladimir Semenov (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Varvara Busova  (Moscow, Russian Federation).  (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Kharis Mustafin  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Technical Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Irina Alborova  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Biological Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Alina Matzvai  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected]

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635th Anti-Aircraft Missile Regiment

635-й зенитно-ракетный полк

Military Unit: 86646

Activated 1953 in Stepanshchino, Moscow Oblast - initially as the 1945th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment for Special Use and from 1955 as the 635th Anti-Aircraft Missile Regiment for Special Use.

1953 to 1984 equipped with 60 S-25 (SA-1) launchers:

• Launch area: 55 15 43N, 38 32 13E (US designation: Moscow SAM site E14-1)
• Support area: 55 16 50N, 38 32 28E
• Guidance area: 55 16 31N, 38 30 38E

1984 converted to the S-300PT (SA-10) with three independent battalions:

• 1st independent Anti-Aircraft Missile Battalion (Bessonovo, Moscow Oblast) - 55 09 34N, 38 22 26E
• 2nd independent Anti-Aircraft Missile Battalion and HQ (Stepanshchino, Moscow Oblast) - 55 15 31N, 38 32 23E
• 3rd independent Anti-Aircraft Missile Battalion (Shcherbovo, Moscow Oblast) - 55 22 32N, 38 43 33E

Disbanded 1.5.98.

Subordination:

• 1st Special Air Defence Corps , 1953 - 1.6.88
• 86th Air Defence Division , 1.6.88 - 1.10.94
• 86th Air Defence Brigade , 1.10.94 - 1.10.95
• 86th Air Defence Division , 1.10.95 - 1.5.98